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[This information was originally produced by Beverly Skinner, wildlife biologist at Innoko
National Wildlife Refuge (in west central Alaska), for radio broadcast on Public Radio stations
throughout Alaska.]
Webster's New World Dictionary defines lead as a heavy, soft, malleable, bluish-gray metallic
chemical element. Lead has been used by humans since ancient times. Early Egyptians used
lead in their coins, jewelry, ceramic glazes, and as solder. The early Roman empire took lead use
a step farther, and fashioned lead pipes to transport water throughout their cities - resulting in the
world's first indoor plumbing. Some of these ancient Roman pipes are still in use today, proving
how long lead can persist in the environment.
Lead has had many uses in modern times also. Lead pigments were widely used in ceramic
glazes and interior paints throughout the United States. Lead has been added to gasoline to
improve engine efficiency and reduce gasoline consumption in automobiles. Lead was
commonly used in making modern pipes because lead is highly resistant to corrosion. Because
of lead's high density, it has also traditionally been the substance of choice for bullets and
shotgun shot.
Just as lead has been used by humans for several thousand years, signs of lead poisoning
have been documented for just about as long. Lead and lead compounds are highly toxic when
eaten or inhaled. Although lead is absorbed very slowly into the body, its rate of excretion is
even slower. Therefore, with repeated exposure, lead accumulates gradually in the body. It is
absorbed by the red blood cells of animals, including humans, and is circulated throughout the
body before becoming concentrated in the soft tissues such as the liver, kidneys, and brain.
At one time, lead poisoning was common among those who worked with lead. Because of
lead's toxicity to humans and the environment, its use in products is currently being phased out
in this country. Paint no longer has lead added to it. In fact, older homes with lead based paint
are carefully being renovated, as even the paint dust particles are highly toxic. Lead pipes are
also being removed from older homes and commercial buildings, and replaced with non-toxic
pipes. Lead use in gasoline is declining. Lead is no longer consider safe as an additive to glazes
used on ceramic dishes used for cooking or eating. In 1991, lead shot became illegal for hunting
waterfowl in the United States. As of March 1, 1998 lead shot also became illegal for all
subsistence waterfowl hunters in Alaska.
In recent years, the amount of lead considered safe in our environment has been revised
downward by the US Center for Disease Control. Symptoms of lead poisoning include loss of
appetite, weakness, anemia, vomiting and convulsions, brain damage, and even death. In many
areas of the country, the effects of lead poisoning have hit our children the hardest.
For Alaska Naturally and the Innoko National Wildlife Refuge, this is Beverly Skinner. Lead is
now a recognized environmental poison. We'll look more into the effects of lead shot on the
environment, as well as proven alternatives to lead shot, next week.
Note: This is the MapCruzin.com archive of the FWS Arctic National Wildlife Refuge website. In December, 2001 FWS took this website offline, making it unavailable to the public. It includes 90 plus pages of information and many maps. As of 2006 the important information contained in this, the original "unsanitized" version of the FWS website, has yet to return to the internet, so we will continue to maintain it here as a permanent archive to help inform activists and concerned citizens. If you find any broken links, please report them to me at [email protected] and I will attempt to make the repairs. January, 2008 update - A small part of the original information that was present in 2001 has made it back into the current ANWR website. There is also an archive that contains a small amount of the original information, but it is not readily available from the main website.
Click here to visit our homepage. Click here for NRDC's message about ANWR from Robert Redford.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2001. Potential impacts of proposed oil and gas
development on the Arctic Refuge�s
coastal plain: Historical overview and
issues of concern. Web page of the Arctic National
Wildlife Refuge,
Fairbanks, Alaska.
17 January 2001. http://arctic.fws.gov/issues1.html
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January 29, 2008: 